Argument
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Argument | |
|---|---|
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| Type | Logical and epistemic structure |
| Field | Logic; Epistemology |
| Core idea | Structured set of propositions intended to support a conclusion |
| Assumptions | Propositions can stand in justificatory relations; support can be evaluated independently of persuasion |
| Status | Foundational concept |
| Related | Logic; Reasoning; Inference; Rationality |
Argument is a logical and epistemic structure consisting of one or more propositions (the premises) presented in support of another proposition (the conclusion). Arguments are used to justify beliefs, explain reasoning, and evaluate whether conclusions are warranted by given information.
In philosophy and logic, arguments are distinguished from rhetoric or persuasion by their focus on justificatory structure rather than psychological effect.
Core idea
At its core, an argument links premises to a conclusion through a relation of support. To present an argument is to claim that if the premises are accepted, the conclusion should also be accepted, at least to some degree.
Arguments can be assessed independently of whether their conclusions are true or persuasive.
Premises and conclusions
An argument consists of:
- Premises — propositions offered as reasons.
- Conclusion — the proposition the argument aims to support.
Identifying premises and conclusions clearly is essential for evaluating an argument’s structure and strength.
Validity and soundness
Arguments are commonly evaluated using two distinct criteria:
- Validity — whether the conclusion follows from the premises.
- Soundness — whether the argument is valid and its premises are true.
A sound argument provides strong justification for accepting its conclusion, while a valid but unsound argument does not.
Deductive and non-deductive arguments
Arguments may differ in the kind of support they provide:
- Deductive arguments aim to establish conclusions with necessity.
- Inductive arguments support conclusions probabilistically.
- Abductive arguments propose conclusions as plausible explanations.
Each type involves different standards of evaluation and degrees of certainty.
Argument and reasoning
Arguments are closely related to reasoning but are not identical to it. Reasoning refers to the cognitive or procedural process, while an argument is the structured product that can be analyzed, evaluated, and criticized.
An argument may be sound even if the reasoning that produced it was flawed, and vice versa.
Argument and inference
Arguments make explicit the structure of inference by stating premises and conclusions overtly. This explicitness allows inferences to be examined for validity, hidden assumptions, and gaps.
Inference can occur without articulated arguments, but arguments facilitate scrutiny.
Argument in practice
Arguments appear in scientific papers, legal reasoning, philosophical debate, and everyday discourse. In many contexts, arguments are incomplete or implicit, requiring reconstruction before evaluation.
Distinguishing arguments from rhetorical techniques is essential for critical assessment.
Fallacies
Some arguments fail due to errors in reasoning, relevance, or structure. These errors, often called fallacies, undermine the justificatory force of an argument.
Identifying fallacies requires attention to both logical form and contextual assumptions.
Limits and context
Not all disagreements can be resolved by argument alone. Differences in background assumptions, values, or standards of evidence may limit what arguments can achieve.
Recognizing these limits helps distinguish logical disagreement from deeper conceptual or normative conflict.
Status
Argument is a foundational concept in logic and epistemology. Its analysis provides tools for evaluating justification, clarifying disagreement, and distinguishing warranted conclusions from unsupported claims.