Theory
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Theory | |
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| Type | Conceptual and explanatory framework |
| Field | Philosophy of science; Epistemology |
| Core idea | Structured system of principles used to explain, predict, or organize phenomena |
| Assumptions | Phenomena exhibit patterns; structured accounts can capture relevant relations |
| Status | Foundational concept |
| Related | Model; Explanation; Scientific realism; Instrumentalism |
Theory is a structured system of principles, concepts, and relations used to explain, predict, or organize phenomena. In scientific and philosophical contexts, theories provide general frameworks that unify observations and guide inquiry.
The concept of theory is central to the philosophy of science and is closely connected to debates about explanation, truth, and realism.
Core idea
At its core, a theory offers a general account that goes beyond isolated observations. Theories identify patterns, relations, or mechanisms that account for why phenomena occur and how they are related.
A theory is not merely a collection of data; it provides structure and interpretive guidance.
Theory and observation
Theories interact with observation in complex ways. Observations inform theory development, while theories shape what counts as relevant observation.
This interaction challenges the idea that observations are entirely theory-neutral.
Explanatory role
Theories play a central role in explanation. By subsuming phenomena under general principles, theories allow individual events to be understood as instances of broader patterns.
Different theories may explain the same phenomena in different ways.
Predictive role
In addition to explanation, theories support prediction. A theory’s ability to generate accurate predictions is often treated as a key indicator of its success.
However, predictive success does not uniquely determine how a theory should be interpreted.
Theoretical entities
Theories often posit entities or structures that are not directly observable. The status of these entities is a central issue in debates between scientific realism and instrumentalism.
Whether such entities should be taken as real or as useful constructs remains contested.
Theory and models
Theories are often implemented through models. Models provide concrete or simplified representations that allow theories to be applied to specific cases.
Models may idealize or abstract from reality while remaining theoretically informative.
Theory change
Theories change over time in response to new evidence, anomalies, or conceptual developments. Philosophy of science examines whether theory change represents cumulative progress, conceptual replacement, or framework revision.
This analysis bears on interpretations of scientific progress.
Evaluation of theories
Theories are evaluated using multiple criteria, including explanatory scope, coherence, predictive accuracy, and simplicity. No single criterion is decisive in all contexts.
Trade-offs among criteria are common in theory choice.
Limits and underdetermination
The same body of evidence may support multiple competing theories, a phenomenon known as underdetermination. This challenges the idea that evidence alone determines theory choice.
Philosophical responses appeal to explanatory virtues or long-term convergence.
Theory and truth
Whether theories are true, approximately true, or merely useful is a central question in the philosophy of science. Different answers yield different interpretations of scientific knowledge.
This question connects theory evaluation to broader metaphysical commitments.
Status
Theory is a foundational concept in science and philosophy. Its analysis clarifies how general frameworks structure inquiry, explanation, and prediction, and how scientific knowledge develops over time.